From the end of the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War, the Bicol Region—particularly Naga City, then known as Nueva Cáceres—entered the 20th century under a new colonial master. During the early 1900s, American rule brought sweeping transformations to Camarines Sur and its capital, reshaping its economy, society, and identity. This period was marked by both modernization and resistance, as Bikolanos navigated the promises and contradictions of American imperialism. We feature an overview of Ambos Camarines and Albay regions of Bicol during the American colonial era, supplemented with excerpts from historian Leo Paulo Imperial’s Heritage Month public lecture “Naga Under the Stars and Stripes” which he delivered at the Balatas Development Complex Grounds on May 9, 2025. These excerpts, shown in quotation marks, present in greater detail aspects of this significant period in Bikol history, about Naga primarily and Ambos Camarines secondarily.

“The Americans introduced the Bikolanos to new principles and dimensions of political, social, and economic life. American political principles were incorporated in the local government. The colonial state also introduced a system of public education with a curriculum focused on reading, arithmetic, and geography. American capitalist interests were evident in Bikol as colonial policies gave emphasis on economic programs in agriculture to boost the abaca trade and cottage industries. As American colonialism progressed, changes were also observed in the city’s architecture, engineering, businesses, and transportation.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga under Stars and Stripes

Military Administration

Following the Philippine-American War, the U.S. military maintained a strong presence in Bicol. General William Kobbe was appointed as the first military governor. His successor was General James Franklin Bell. Garrisons were established in Naga and Legazpi to suppress remaining resistance. The Americans, fighting with superior manpower and armaments defeated the forces led by General Antonio Guevara, commander of the Bikolano revolutionaries in Camarines Sur, and subsequently the guerilla army organized by Colonel Ludovico Arejola. The American forces came to Daet via Mercedes aboard the steamer “Venus” on March 4, 1900. At this time, Bicol resistance against the Americans was almost quelled. Col. Antonio Sanz surrendered Daet to Maj. McNamee who headed the two companies stationed there. Despite the establishment of a civil government in Albay in April 1901, General Simeon Ola and his followers continued to resist American authority. In Catanduanes, with superior arms and military power, the Americans found passive resistance among the natives. However, some local insurgents who refused to recognize the sovereignty of the invading force retreated to the mountains.

The Philippine Constabulary was established on August 18, 1901, under the general supervision of the civil Governor-General to maintain peace, law, and order in the various provinces, often composed of local recruits, enforced colonial order and quelled banditry. The constabulary assisted the United States military in combating the remaining irreconcilable revolutionaries. Following the capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo on March 23, 1901, D Company of the US 15th Infantry Regiment was stationed at Legaspi, Albay. From there, they conducted patrols and garrison duties, including occupying Nueva Caceres (Naga), Sorsogon, and Bulan.

By the 1920s, military rule gave way to civil governance, though the shadow of American power remained.

Socio-Economic Changes

The American colonial government introduced a more centralized and bureaucratic system of governance, reducing Nueva Cáceres from a Spanish-era ciudad to a municipality in 1901. Yet, this demotion did not diminish its regional importance. Naga remained a vital trade and ecclesiastical center, strategically located at the confluence of the Bicol and Naga Rivers.

During the American colonial period, Bicol’s economic activities included significant commercial agriculture, particularly the production and export of abaca (Manila hemp). Legazpi, a Bicol port, thrived as a key location for this trade. The Philippine National Bank (PNB), established in 1916 to replace the small government-owned Agricultural Bank, played a role in providing loans to export-related industries such as abaca and sugar processing. 

Land ownership patterns shifted, with the sale of friar lands and the introduction of cadastral surveys, though these often-favored local elites. The Public Land Act of 1903 introduced a homestead system intended to distribute public lands to individuals and address agrarian issues. This system allowed citizens (or heads of families) to acquire up to 16 hectares of unoccupied public agricultural land. The Land Registration Act of 1902 implemented the Torrens system of land registration to provide a more secure and reliable system for documenting land ownership.

To address agrarian unrest, the colonial government purchased large estates owned by religious orders (known as “friar lands”) and attempted to redistribute them to tenants through the Friar Lands Act of 1904. In essence, while the American colonial government introduced policies aimed at promoting land ownership and security, existing patterns of concentration, the challenges of implementing new legal frameworks, and the influence of powerful elites contributed to a complex land ownership landscape in the Philippines during the early 1900s. 

Eventually, a nascent middle class emerged, composed of professionals, teachers, and merchants educated in the new public school system.

Reforms in Education

Education became the cornerstone of American colonial policy. In 1901, the arrival of the Thomasites, American teachers, aboard the U.S. Army Transport vessel USS Thomas, ushered in a secular and public school system. They were sent to establish a public education system and train Filipino teachers, with English as the medium of instruction, reshaping the linguistic landscape of the region. Their arrival marked a significant step in the American colonial effort to introduce a Western-style education system in the Philippines, including Bicol. The public school system in the Philippines was formally established by the Philippine Commission through Act No. 74 in 1901.

“The American officials were determined to utilize education as a viable tool of pacification. The initiative of providing Filipino children the opportunity for free public education, while the Filipino American war raged, was a campaign to capture the hearts of parents and served as a constraint to hamper them from actively joining the resistance movement against the Americans. This paved the way for the development of education in the city.

“In 1903 the Americans set up in Nueva Caceres a grammar and a high school. The grammar school was on the same basis as those, in the U.S. being intermediate to the primary schools and normal schools. It absorbed the more advanced pupils of the primary schools of Nueva Caceres and vicinity and prepared them for classes in the high school. Shortly after its opening, it attracted a regular daily attendance of 39 pupils.”

“The basic components of the curriculum were reading, arithmetic, geography, spelling with some special instruction in singing, writing and composition, and language. Moreover, The First Philippine Commission emphasized that the instruction in the English language should be inculcated instantly in the primary schools because the American perceived that to limit the natives to their native dialects would perpetuate their isolation form the modern world and hinder them from experiencing a progressive life.”

 “A high school was likewise established under the care of Mr. Frank L. Crone. This school was opened on 15 July 1903 with Mr. Crone and one lady assistant in charge. The daily attendance reached 185, some of them were the brightest and most intelligent young men and women not only of Nueva Caceres but of the entire province.  The colonial government’s educational project on the students, the provincial administrators and the American educators in the city were for credited the preliminary successes of Unlike in the Spanish period where most natives showed very little enthusiasm, Bikolanos in the American period showed remarkable interest in going to school.”

“In 1905, attendance in the primary schools in Nueva Caceres showed remarkable increase as it reached 951. During this year, the provincial high school which was taught by 3 American male and 3 American female teachers plus 1 Filipino teacher, showed encouraging signs. Some 462 students were already regularly attending classes. Its progress was evident that at the beginning of 1905 it was necessary to abolish the lower classes to accommodate the advanced pupils of this capital and of other towns. Thus, the governor of Ambos Camarines remarked that there are signs that “the inhabitants of this province convinced that their regeneration depends upon education attend school hungering for culture.” To upgrade the teaching competence of the native teachers, a normal school was opened in Nueva Caceres. It held summer classes in the entire month of May every year. During its maiden session in 1902, the normal school registered an enrollment of 121.”

 “Although the monopoly of the Catholic church over the education of the youth ceased with the American rule, Catholic schools continued to enjoy its privileged reputation. The Colegio de Sta Isabel remained the only Catholic school for women. In 1940 its primary, intermediate and kindergarten school began admitting boys. Aside from the Colegio de Santa Isabel and the seminary, Naga witnessed the rise of other private schools among which was Southern Luzon College. This collegiate school offered courses in Pre-Law, Pre-Commerce, Pre-Education. This school was run by a Board of Trustees headed by Dr. Arsenio Imperial.”

 “One of the most popular among these Catholic schools was the Camarines Sur Catholic Academy founded in June of 1928 by Fr. Luis Dimarumba and Bishop Francisco Reyes. Among its pioneering teachers was Monico Imperial, who later became mayor of Naga. In 1939 it had a student population of 560 pupils.  This was located in the rectory of the Naga Cathedral. However, by 1940 the Academy was replaced by the Ateneo de Naga.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga under Stars and Stripes

In Catanduanes, an American-style school system was installed in 1901, and in Bato, a public school was founded in 1904. Camarines Norte High School, which was established in 1920, played a crucial role in the province’s education system during the 1900s.

Agriculture and Industry

The Bicol economy remained largely agricultural, but American policies encouraged the production of export-oriented crops. The region’s fertile volcanic soil, valleys, and plains were ideal for cultivating a variety of crops, like abaca (near seaports) and cash crops like rice and coconut. Abaca exports from the Philippines reached a peak in 1928-29, particularly benefiting Bicol ports involved in the fiber trade.

“In 1918, Bikolanos were principally engaged in commercial agricultural pursuits, specifically abaca production. Ambos Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon were the top abaca-producing provinces. Albay devoted 80,698 hectares of land to abaca cultivation, the largest in the country, and this vast expanse of land yielded 86,143,464 kilos of fiber. Third on the list of top abaca producers was Ambos Camarines. The province, with 63,479 hectares of abaca land, produced 24,285,481 kilos of fiber. Next to Ambos Camarines was Sorsogon, with 48,246 hectares planted with abaca and a total production of 22,215,344 kilos. Bikol remained at the forefront of abaca production even in the American era.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga Under the Stars and Stripes

Abaca (Manila hemp) became the region’s dominant cash crop, with Albay, Camarines Sur, and Sorsogon as major producers. The United States, as the colonizing power after the Spanish-American War (1898-1946), played a significant role in shaping the industry, favoring American businesses and ensuring that a large portion of the abaca harvest was exported to the US. Abaca gained in preference as it was cleaner, more durable, and flexible, and unlike hemp, it did not require tarring to resist water damage. It was particularly important for rope production, with much of the early ropemaking occurring in New England, US, although this later shifted back to the Philippines. 

Coconut and rice farming expanded, aided by irrigation projects and agricultural extension services. In the early 1900s, the Philippines experienced a significant boom in its coconut industry, driven by the demand for coconut oil and copra in the American market. This period saw the Philippines become the world’s leading exporter of copra, with Filipino ports, including Legazpi, shipping out hundreds of thousands of tons annually by 1910. The implementation of free trade between the US and the Philippines in 1909 further boosted the industry, as it allowed for increased exports to the lucrative American market. Regions like Southern Tagalog and Bicol in Luzon, and the Eastern Visayas, became major centers of coconut production. 

“Although small cottage industries remained in the hands of native manufacturers, more important items of trade were increasingly falling into the hands of the Chinese. One of which was the tobacco industry. Chewing tobacco was manufactured in eight factories in the province, two of which were in Naga. The manufacture of chewing tobacco proved to be a rich source of revenue as the habit was quite widespread. Shortly before the outbreak of the war the cigarette factory owned by Dy Chiao continued to rake profits from the manufacture of chewing tobacco called La Suavidad. Aside from this product, the factory of Dy Chiao was also the source of cigar and cigarettes which bore patriotic names such as La Patria and Katipunan. The famous company La Simpatica Fabrica de Moscada, which manufactured the La Simpatica cigarettes and was also one of the biggest distributors of Asian, American and European textile had two branches in Naga. One was the Bazar Elegancia and the other was La Bella Bicolana all located at General Luna Street. All these stores were belonging to a Chinese company called Yu So and Company.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga Under the Stars and Stripes

Architecture and Infrastructure

American colonial architecture left a visible imprint on Naga and surrounding towns. Gabaldon school buildings, with their neoclassical design and raised wooden floors, became iconic symbols of public education. The name originated from Isauro Gabaldón who as a member of the Philippine Assembly sponsored the “Gabaldon Law” of 1907 which built the American-era public schools. To aid in the swift construction of schools, prototype “standard plans” were designed by American architect William E. Parsons. The school buildings were executed in three styles: barrio, municipal and high school. Furthermore, municipal halls and courthouses were built in the American colonial style, emphasizing symmetry and civic order.

Roads and bridges were constructed to connect Naga to Legazpi, Daet, and Manila, facilitating trade and military movement. The first motor vehicles appeared on Philippine highways around 1910, further driving the need for better roads and infrastructure. The American era introduced new construction techniques, including the popular macadam road type as well as steel trusses and reinforced concrete for bridges, improving durability and load capacity. 

 “The improved road systems and expansion of the automotive industry had a reciprocal impact on the increase in the number of motorized transport modes in Naga. Although horse-drawn vehicles such as calesas still dominated the streets of Naga and Legaspi in the early decades of the American regime, the well-off natives, Americans, and companies in the urban towns were attracted to the new transport mode utilizing a form of power other than animal strength. By 1914, numerous motorized vehicles were registered in the provinces of Ambos Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon. In Naga, many well-off families had their own cars, and this became an index of socioeconomic status in the city. Among the first and popular owners of these automobiles were Naga’s prominent families: the Dy-Lliacos, Lopezes, Arroyos, Abellas, Diazes, and Melitons.”

“Under the American regime, new architectural styles and engineering concepts were introduced in Naga. The American Colonial administration expressed a new vision of nationhood and presented the evolutionary stages of American culture dwelling on civic designs together with its pragmatic and symbolical structures pertinent to nation building. Whereas the Spanish design was characterized by massive and spacious stone and brick structures, the Americans emphasized a modest-sized structure using predominantly wooden materials. Although most of the remaining commercial and government buildings of Spanish period and the ordinary people’s domiciles still dotted the landscape, new houses of the middle class and the elite started to rise in the early 1900 which followed American architecture. Many public buildings were renovated or remodeled bearing American designs. The Casa Real, the official residence of the Alcalde Mayor of the province, was reconstructed in the early 1900’s. It evolved as one of the magnificent showcases of American architecture in the city.”

“Owing to this booming construction works, the demand for wood rose significantly. By the second decade of the twentieth century, the lumber business was one of the most profitable ventures of the domestic trade in Bikol. Logging firms in Camarines Sur and Camarines Norte controlled a combined asset of 7.2 million pesos. Among the popular hardware shops in Naga were Marsman Development Co., an American company, and Mariano Villafuerte’s Villasol Lumber Mill.”

“Another important innovation introduced by the Americans was the concept of subdivision housing. Shortly before the outbreak of the second world war, a new subdivision was opened for residential occupation. This was called the Modern Naga Subdivision owned by Ignacio Santos. Located in a swampy area, this subdivision owner undertook the development of the site. To further entice lot buyers, the brother of the subdivision owner, Bishop Pedro Santos, offered the Jesuit Fathers based in Manila a certain portion of the site for a school. With the establishment of the Ateneo de Naga the subdivision business was spared from a potential business debacle.”  

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga Under the Stars and Stripes

Transportation Innovations

The early 20th century saw the rise of motorized transport in the Bicol region of the Philippines, as it made progress from animal-powered transport for people and goods. In 1914, the Albert Louis Ammen Transportation Company (ALATCO) was founded in Naga, becoming the first bus company in the Philippines. ALATCO’s motorized buses revolutionized inland mobility, linking remote towns to urban centers. Later, rail transport played a significant role, with the first Bicol train line opening in 1931, and a unified system connecting Manila to Legazpi inaugurated in 1938. 

“In Bikol, upon the realization of the aptness of motorized transport to the good road networks and the potential effects of motorized vehicles in various domains of urban life and economic development, motorized transportation ceased to be perceived by Bikolanos as a luxury possession and was recognized as a necessity of life. The auspicious conditions of inland mobility in Naga inspired enterprising American serviceman Albert Louis Ammen to venture into a transportation business appropriate to the completed roads.

“The Albert Louis Ammen Transportation Company (ALATCO), the first motor bus company in the Philippines and the pioneer in Naga’s motorized public mass transport system, was founded on 6 July 1914. Improved road conditions in Naga and the rest of Bikol in the early twentieth century were advantageous for the rapid and extensive development of motorized inland transportation. It was in this context that enterprising American servicemen led by Albert Louis Ammen, Max Blouse, William Bowler, R. F. Lawson, and Dean Lockwood realized the necessity of a reliable and efficient public transport to assist the movement of people and goods; thus, they decided to venture into a transportation business suited to the completed roads.”

“ALATCO became a symbol of transportation in Naga and the rest of Bikol. Transportation modes and facilities were among the many sectors of public life to which the American-controlled enterprise had made substantial contributions in the region. The technological advancement of inland transportation engendered urban transformation, affected the movement of people and goods, influenced shifts in population, facilitated economic growth, and restructured various dimensions of life in Bikol.”

–Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga Under the Stars and Stripes

Improved road networks enabled faster movement of goods and people, integrating Bicol more closely into the national economy.

Public Health

The American colonial government prioritized public health as part of its “benevolent assimilation” campaign. It brought about a more structured approach to public health, with the establishment of the Bureau of Health and the implementation of sanitary legislation and disease prevention strategies. 

It made efforts to improve sanitation and prevent outbreaks of epidemic diseases with institutions like the Bureau of Health and with expansion of hospitals and dispensaries. In 1917, the Americans established an army station hospital in Legazpi, which became Albay Provincial Hospital in 1918. It was renamed Bicol Regional Training and Teaching Hospital in 1995. Compulsory vaccination against diseases like smallpox was implemented, initially encountering some public resistance due to superstition and distrust.

“The American colonial administration imported advancements in the field of medicine and public health, which was most apparent in the decrease in mortality rate, thereby accelerating the population growth rate in Naga and the rest of Bikol. Prior to the introduction of a scientific program of public health and welfare, Bikolanos were constantly susceptible to the ravages of cholera, smallpox, dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis, and other deadly diseases. Thus, with the arrival of well-trained medical personnel and with the significant advance in the field of medical science. Americans immediately went to work to minimize the spread of the diseases and improved the health of the people. They administered the sick and strictly enforced sanitary regulations in major towns and even far-flung settlements that were now accessible because of the extended road networks. Health personnel also educated Bikolanos on the importance of maintaining hygiene and how to properly purify drinking water because one of the causes of the chronic outbreak of epidemics was contaminated water drawn from the springs.

“However, despite the efforts of the Americans to reduce the effects of epidemics through the services of competent American doctors and public health officers, they continued to wreck death among the city residents. In 1902 there were 2,320 deaths in Nueva Caceres, most of them were due largely to sickness. In the months of June July and August 1904, malarial fever was responsible for the death of some 310 per 1,000 residents of Nueva Caceres.

“To safeguard the health and sanitation of the people, the American colonial administration established the Bureau of Health and Quarantine Service. The battle against these dreaded diseases began to show favorable results around 1920 with the increase of better trained medical personnel and the significant advance in the field of medical science. Among the earliest American doctors who dedicated their time to the residents of Nueva Caceres were Dr. Shannon Richmond, captain and assistant surgeon of the US Volunteers, and J.M. Wheate, captain and Chief Medical Officer of the Philippine Constabulary. These two personally administered treatments to the sick and strictly enforced sanitary regulations by educating the residents. However, the American authorities also tapped local personnel. Candido Amador, although merely an undergraduate of medicine, was appointed president of the municipal board of health of Nueva Caceres in 1906.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga under the Stars and Stripes

Vaccination campaigns against smallpox and cholera were launched, often with military support. Sanitary codes were enforced, and public latrines and drainage systems were introduced in poblaciones like Naga. The establishment of provincial hospitals and dispensaries improved access to Western medicine, though rural areas remained underserved.

Political Evolution

The early years of American rule saw military governors and appointed officials, but by the 1910s, political participation expanded. The Philippine Assembly (1907) and later the Philippine Legislature allowed Bicolano leaders to represent regional interests.

Prominent figures of the Philippine Assembly, like Tomas Arejola (Ambos Camarines, 1907-1912) and Domingo Samson (Albay, 1908-1912) emerged as advocates for autonomy and reform. Tomas Arejola became the Chairman of the Committee on Public Works, Forests and Mines and member of the Committee on Railways, Schools and Franchises. Thru his efforts, roads in Polangui were built, roads connecting Daet, San Vicente, Talisay and Indan were constructed while a road linking Tigaon to Goa became a reality. The bridge in Tabuco, Naga City and the Pawili bridge in Bula were his pet projects. He was the creator of the town of Canaman. He also legislated public markets and schools into existence among which was the Nueva Caceres High School (now Camarines Sur National High School) and others.

“(In the second decade of American rule) Nueva Caceres experienced significant political changes under the American regime. The underlying republican ideals of American political thought led naturally to local governments with heavy native participation. The new structure differed significantly from the nineteenth century in which the government was highly centralized and the church not only shared power, but the parish priest was virtually the power behind local authorities.”

“… Those who emerged as the political kingpins of the province since the early decade of the American rule until the outbreak of the war were mainly residents of the city. Among them were Mariano Abella, Mariano Villafuerte, Francisco Celebrado, Ramon Felipe Sr. However, even those who were original residents of outlying municipalities had their own houses in the city such as the Fuentebellas, the Ocampos, and the Gallegos.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga Under the Stars and Stripes

By the 1930s, local elections were held regularly, and municipal councils gained more authority. Many of the officials who held important posts in the local government (city, town and province) previously served during the Spanish regime and in the revolutionary government.

Rise of Nationalism

Despite American efforts to instill loyalty, nationalist sentiments simmered beneath the surface. Bicolano intellectuals and writers contributed to the growing discourse on independence, often through vernacular newspapers and poetry. The 1935 Constitution and the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines rekindled hopes for self-rule. Wenceslao Vinzons of Camarines Norte was the youngest delegate to the convention and the youngest signatory of the 1935 Constitution. In schools, Filipino history and heroes were reintroduced into the curriculum, subtly challenging colonial narratives.

“While the city residents quickly embraced American culture, colonial authorities also tolerated the growing spirit of nationalism. A patent expression of this nationalist sentiment was the increasing assertiveness of the Filipino identity. Even the name Nueva Caceres which the city came to be known for more than three hundred years was not spared before this rising tide of nationalism. In the early decades of the American rule, the Spanish name of Nueva Caceres was formally replaced with the Bikol name of Naga.”

 “The outpouring of patriotic sentiments in the celebration or commemoration of some nationalist events were publicly allowed. The death anniversaries of Rizal and Bonifacio were added to the already long list of holidays which the city had been celebrating since the Spanish times. Even monuments were erected to honor and immortalize the memory of Filipino national and local heroes. Such was evident in the two monuments in the city which stood as landmarks of Bikolanos tribute to nationalism. One of which was the Rizal monument which was erected by a sculptor named Crispulo Zamora in 1919. The monument was located in front of then newly-renovated provincial government building.”

– Leo Paulo Imperial, Naga Under the Stars and Stripes

Conclusion

During the early 1900s, Naga City and the Bicol Region underwent profound changes under American colonial rule. Roads were paved, schools were built, and new ideas took root. Yet beneath the veneer of progress lay deeper questions about identity, sovereignty, and justice. The Bicolano response was neither passive nor monolithic—it was a complex negotiation between adaptation and resistance, between remembering the past and imagining a future beyond empire.

The header features an American car on a Daet-Basud roadway in 1934 (photo: John Tewell on Flickr). Written by Jojo De Jesus for Dateline Ibalon, using these references for historical perspective: Gerona, Danilo. 2003. Naga: The Birth and Rebirth of a City; Historical Background (naga.gov.ph); An Naga Ngonian, Naga City Government Newsletter – 75th Year, 2023; Camarines Norte website; Catanduanes website; Wikipedia.

About the featured lecturer

Historian LEO PAULO IMPERIAL is the current chairman of the Social Sciences Department of the Ateneo de Naga University. He obtained his MA History degree from the Ateneo de Manila University. He is the president of Nueva Caceres Heritage Movement, Inc. His research interests include Bicol history, mobility studies, and transportation history.

Summary of References (book authors/titles):

American Chamber of Commerce Journal, various articles; Anderson, Warwick. 2007. Colonial pathologies: American tropical medicine, race, and hygiene in the Philippines; Aragon, Antonio. 1998. Naga and the Bicol region: Observation from the Commonwealth period to the present; Arejola, Jaime. 1964. The American occupation of Nueva Caceres and other parts of Camarines Sur, 1900–1901; Quarterly Bulletin of the Bureau of Public Works, various issues; Chamberlin, Frederick. 1913. The Philippine problem 1898–1913; Corpuz, Arturo. 1999. Colonial iron horse: Railroads and regional development in the Philippines, 1875–1935; Churchill, Bernardita. 1983. The Philippine independence missions to the United States, 1919—1934; De Bevoise, Ken. 1995. Agents of apocalypse: Epidemic disease in the colonial Philippines; Doeppers, Daniel. 1998. Philippine historical demography. In Population and history: The demographic origins of the modern Philippines; Foreman, John. 1985. The Philippine Islands; Freer, William. 1906. The Philippine Experience of an American teacher; Gerona, Danilo. 2003. Naga: The birth and rebirth of a city; Gleeck, Lewis. 1974. Americans on the Philippine frontier; Golay, Frank. 1997. Face of empire, United States–Philippine relations, 1898–1946; Hutchcroft, Paul. “Colonial masters, national politicos, and provincial lords: Central authority and local autonomy in the American Philippines, 1900–1913; Legarda, Benito. 1999. After the galleons: Foreign trade, economic change and entrepreneurship in the nineteenth century Philippines; O’Brien, James. 1993. The historical and cultural heritage of the Bikol people; Owen, Norman. 1984. Prosperity without progress: Manila hemp and material life in the colonial Philippines; Report(s) of the Philippine Commission, 1900-1905, various issues; Philippine Islands Census Office. 1921; Reyes, Jose Calleja. 1992. Bikol Maharlika; Sawyer, Frederick. 1900. Inhabitants of the Philippines; Totanes, Stephen Henry. 2000. Promoting un bien gobierno, 1902–1907; Worcester, Dean. 1930. The Philippine, Past and Present.