As we commemorate Philippine Independence Day this June 12, we honor not only the revolutionaries who took up arms but also those who, decades earlier, laid the groundwork for nationalist awakening—among them, the often-overlooked creoles: Spaniards born in the Philippines.

In his book Culture and History, a collection of essays written in the 60’s and first published in 1988, National Artist Nick Joaquin casts a luminous eye on the creoles’ pivotal role in the Filipinos’ journey toward independence. These locally born Spaniards, caught in the cultural tension between the Iberian metropole and the native land they called home, became unlikely harbingers of reform and the Filipinos’ early national consciousness and collective identity.

According to historian Fr. José Arcilla, S.J., in his analysis of The Enlightenment and the Philippine Revolution, the intellectual movement in Europe emphasized reason, individual rights, and the questioning of traditional authority—a stark contrast to the rigid, hierarchical colonial system in the Philippines. Filipino students in Madrid, Barcelona, and Paris encountered thinkers like Rousseau, Voltaire, and Locke, whose ideas on liberty, equality, and governance deeply influenced their worldview.

Creoles: The First Reformists

Creoles were among the first to sense the injustice of colonial rule, not just for themselves but for the broader population. Many were marginalized by peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain), barred from high offices and treated as second-class citizens despite sharing blood and religion. As Joaquin notes, this created fertile ground for an identity crisis—and eventually, for solidarity with native-born Filipinos.

Bayot Conspiracy: Three brothers, Manuel, Jose, and Joaquin, sons of Colonel Francisco Bayot, a prominent figure in Manila at the time, conspired with other creole officers of the Battalion Real Principe on April 17, 1822. They were disgruntled with the extra privileges granted to the peninsulares and inspired by revolts of the American colonies. Their goal was to overthrow the colonial government and install their father as king. Plans were laid out and finalized. April 17, 1822, would be the date of the rebellion. However, the conspiracy would never come to fruition. Governor-General Mariano de Folgueras caught wind of the plot and alerted the troops which surrounded the rebels in their barracks before the plan could be carried out. The Bayot brothers, their father, other conspirators, including Luis Rodriquez Varela (b. 1768 – d. 1826), a creole known as El Conde Filipino, a close friend to the Bayots, were arrested on suspected association. Luis Rodriquez Varela was a propagandist involved in local politics and who sought equality with the peninsulares

Novales Mutiny: Captain Andrés Novales (c. 1795 – 1823) of the Spanish Army, a Filipino Creole of Mexican descent, successfully staged a rebellion largely for the same reasons as the Bayot brothers. His unease about the treatment of Creole soldiers led him to start a revolt in 1823 that inspired even people like José Rizal. Leading a regiment of 800 men, he successfully captured Fort Santiago in Intramuros and was proclaimed Emperor of the Philippines by his followers. However, he was defeated within the day by Spanish reinforcements.

Palmero Conspiracy: In 1828, Vicente and Miguel Palmero, who were brothers and scions of a prominent clan along with the other partisans from the military and the civil service, planned to seize the government. The Palmeros were so well-known (one of their most famous descendants was Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero, a Spanish soldier-politician who became a Prime Minister in Spain) that when the Spanish government discovered the plan, they decided to keep it hidden from the public. The main conspirators met their justice in Spain.

Native Uprisings: The native uprisings in 1841 Cofradia of Hermano Pule (Apolinario de la Cruz) and in 1843 Tayabas Regiment Revolt of Sergeant Irineo Samaniego were believed to be supported by liberal creoles. The nascent sense of Filipino nationalism began to take root in the insulares, and they slowly began to embrace the notion of being Filipino. By 1872, a trio of Cavite friars were implicated in a mutiny against unfair taxation and forced labor, galvanizing a new class of middle-class mestizos to action: the Ilustrados. 

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 further accelerated this political transformation. The canal did not just shorten sea travel between Spain and the Philippines—it transported ideas. Liberal-minded Spaniards and Filipino ilustrados traveling to and from Europe became exposed to the ferment of democratic revolutions, enlightenment ideals, and human rights discourses. What they brought back was not only education but aspiration.

The organization La Solidaridad was created in Spain on December 13, 1888. It was composed of Filipino liberals exiled in 1872 and students attending Europe’s universities. It aimed to propagate a closer relationship between the Philippines and Spain and to increase Spanish awareness of the needs of its colony.

Nick Joaquin mentions creoles (also referred to as insulares) in his incisive book A Question of Heroes, Fr. Jose Burgos, one of the three martyr priests of the Gomburza execution in 1872, was a creole who advocated for the rights of Filipino clergy. The others were key figures of La Solidaridad, the propaganda newspaper began publishing in 1889. Graciano López Jaena, a creole-born journalist and orator, first editor of La Solidaridad and used his writings to expose colonial abuses. Marcelo H. del Pilar had creole ancestry and his family belonged to the privileged principalia. As second editor of La Solidaridad, he helped shape the ideological foundation of the nationalist movement. Antonio Luna, a military strategist and scientist educated in Europe, he actively contributed to La Solidaridad, promoting reforms in the Philippines under Spanish rule.

The Ilustrados and the Intellectual Awakening

The ilustrados, literally “the enlightened ones” who were the educated Filipino elite, were deeply influenced by European liberalism. Figures like José Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano López Jaena built upon the ideas and aspirations first introduced by creole reformists. Their exposure to liberal and democratic ideals abroad fueled their desire for reform and, eventually, independence.

Nick Joaquin insightfully points out that the convergence of these forces—creole discontent, exposure to liberal ideas, and the rise of an educated Filipino class—created a cultural climate ripe for revolution. Creole-led newspapers and publications played a significant role in spreading nationalist ideas. They criticized colonial abuses and advocated for Filipino representation in the Spanish government.

While early creoles sought reform within the Spanish system, later generations increasingly supported full independence. Their evolving identity—neither fully Spanish nor fully native—helped shape the broader Filipino consciousness.

Filipino Becoming: The Birth of a National Identity

Joaquin’s concept of “Filipino Becoming” is central to understanding the role of creoles in Philippine history. He argues that Filipino identity was not simply inherited but forged through centuries of cultural fusion, colonial struggle, and intellectual awakening. The creoles, often overlooked in mainstream narratives, played a crucial role in this transformation.

As we celebrate Independence Day and remember heroes like Rizal, Bonifacio, and Aguinaldo, let us also pay homage to the creoles whose complicated loyalties eventually aligned with the cause of freedom. Not all bore arms, but they lit the intellectual fuse that would one day ignite a nation’s fight for liberty.

The header features a photograph of the Malolos Congress where 136 delegates representing 43 different provinces and territories that composed the Spanish Philippines gathered to draft a constitution. On September 29, 1898, the Congress ratified the June 12, 1898 Proclamation of Independence. (credit: IndependenceDay.ph)

This article was written by Jojo De Jesus for Dateline Ibalon based on these primary references:

• Culture and History by Nick Joaquin; National Books Awards Winner (essay, 1988); first published in 1988; reprinted in 2004 by Anvil Publishing.
• A Question of Heroes by Nick Joaquin; published by Anvil Publishing, 2004.
• Book review: Culture and History: Occasional Notes on the Process of Philippine Becoming by Nick Joaquin – Review by: Soledad S. Reyes, Philippine Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1 (First Quarter 1990), published by Ateneo de Manila University.
• Ire of Creoles: Hijos del Pais’ Struggle for Reforms and Independence, 1820s-1840s, Palmo R. Iya, De La Salle University-Dasmariñas.
• The Enlightenment and the Philippine Revolution, Fr. Jose S. Arcilla, S.J., Philippine Studies, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Third Quarter 1991), published by Ateneo de Manila University.